Language Varieties
Group 6
Rizal Fachtur Hidayat (16320017)
Balqist Hamada (16320021)
Sheni Diah Safitri (16320052)
Dhimas Muhammad I. J. (16320053)
Yoshi Nur Rahmawati (16320096)
Nikma Hidayatul Khasanah (16320101)
Audy Oktaviani A. I. (16320140)
Roby Inwanuddin Affandi (16320220)
Wahida Camelia (16320228)
Language varies from one social group to another social group, from one situation to another situation, and from one place to another place. Variation shows that every speaker does not speak the same way all the time. Language varieties indicate that the speakers are distinct from members of other groups (Finegan, 2008). Language variety that signifies particular situations of use is called registers, it is appropriate for use in particular speech situations. There are some examples of language variations that are of interest to linguist according to (Akmajian, 1998), lingua francas, pidgins, creoles, jargon, slang, and taboo language.
Varieties of language develop for a number of reasons: differences can come about for regional (geographical reasons); people who live in different geographic areas often develop distinct dialects—variations of standard language. Ethnic, and social (class, age, gender, and education). Here are some language varieties.
Standard Language
A standard language is a variety of language that is used by governments, in the media, in schools and for international communication. Standard language also known as standard dialect or standardized dialect is a language variety used by a group of people in their public discourse communication. Many prominent language like English, German, Serbo-Croatian, French, Portuguese and Spanish has standard and dialect.
The characteristics of standard language :
1. It is regarded as more correct and socially acceptable than other varieties.
2. It is the variety of used by the educated members such as students, professionals, the media, etc.
3. It confers greater social prestige than non-standard varieties, which are felt to be indicative of the less educated.
4. It is acceptable since the variety defined in dictionaries, grammars, and usage guides.
5. It is usually used in written form than spoken.
6. It takes important functions in society such as education, government, courts, bureaucracy, education, literature, trade, and industry.
Dialect
Dialect is a variety of a language that signals where a person comes from. The notion is usually interpreted geographically (regional dialect), but it also has some application in relation to a person’s social background (class dialect) or occupation (occupational dialect). The word dialectcomes from the Ancient Greek dialektos “discourse, language, dialect,” which is derived from dialegesthai “to discourse, talk.” A dialect is chiefly distinguished from other dialects of the same language by features of linguistic structure—i.e., grammar (specifically morphology and syntax) and vocabulary. In morphology (word formation), various dialects in the Atlantic states have clim, clum, clome, or cloome instead of climbed, and, in syntax (sentence structure), there are “sick to his stomach,” “sick at his stomach,” “sick in,” “sick on,” and “sick with.” On the level of vocabulary, examples of dialectal differences include American English subway, contrasting with British English underground; and corn, which means “maize” in the United States, Canada, and Australia, “wheat” in England, and “oats” in Scotland. Nevertheless, while dialects of the same language differ, they still possess a common core of features.
Although some linguists include phonological features (such as vowels, consonants, and intonation) among the dimensions of dialect, the standard practice is to treat such features as aspects of accent. In the sound system of American English, for example, some speakers pronounce greasy with an “s” sound, while others pronounce it with a “z” sound. Accent differences of this kind are extremely important as regional and class indicators in every language. Their role is well recognized in Great Britain, for example, where the prestige accent, called Received Pronunciation, is used as an educated standard and differences in regional accent, both rural and urban, are frequent. There is far less accent variation in Canada, Australia, and large parts of the United States.
Frequently, the label dialect, or dialectal, is attached to substandard speech, language usage that deviates from the accepted norm—e.g., the speech of many of the heroes of Mark Twin’s novels. On the other hand, the standard language can also be regarded as one of the dialects of a given language, though one that has attracted special prestige. In a historical sense, the term dialect is sometimes applied to a language considered as one of a group deriving from a common ancestor. Thus, English, Swedish, and German are sometimes treated as Germanic dialects.
There is often considerable difficulty in deciding whether two linguistic varieties are dialects of the same language or two separate but closely related languages; this is especially true in parts of the world where speech communities have been little studied. In these cases especially, decisions regarding dialects versus languages must be to some extent arbitrary.
Normally, dialects of the same language are considered to be mutually intelligible, while different languages are not. Intelligibility between dialects is, however, almost never absolutely complete. On the other hand, speakers of closely related languages can still communicate to a certain extent when each uses his own mother tongue. Thus, the criterion of intelligibility is quite relative. In more-developed societies the distinction between dialects and related languages is easier to make because of the existence of standard languages.
Sometimes sociopolitical factors play a role in drawing the distinction between dialect and language. Linguistic varieties that are considered dialects in one set of historical circumstances may be considered languages in another. Before the ethnic conflicts in the Balkans in the 1990s, Serbo-Croation was viewed by its speakers as a single language consisting of several dialects, spoken in Serbia, Boznia and Herzegovina and Croatia; afterward, local communities began to talk of Croatian and Serbian as distinct languages.
Among the synonyms for dialect, the word idiom refers to any kind of dialect, or even language, whereas patois, a term from Frech, denotes rural or provincial dialects, often with a deprecatory Connotation. A similar term is vernacular, which refers to the common, everyday speech of the ordinary people of a region. An Idiolect is the dialect of an individual person at one time. This term implies an awareness that no two persons speak in exactly the same way and that each person’s dialect is constantly undergoing change—e.g., by the introduction of newly acquired words. Most recent investigations emphasize the versatility of each person’s speech habits according to levels or styles of language usage.
Styles
Based on the criterion, Martin Jose (in Brown, 1982: 192) recognizes the speech into frozen, formal, consultative, casual and intimate styles. A frozen (oratorical) style is used in public speaking before a large audience; wording is carefully planned in advance, intonation is somewhat exaggerated, and numerous rhetorical devices are appropriate. A formal (deliberative) style is also used in addressing audiences, usually audiences too large to permit effective interchange between speaker and hearers, though the forms are normally not as polished as those in a frozen (oratorical) style. A typical university classroom lecture is often carried out in a formal (deliberative) style. A consultative style is typically a dialogue, though formal enough that words are chosen with some care. Business transactions, doctor-patient conversations, and the like are consultative in nature. Casual conversations are between friends or colleagues or sometimes numbers of a family; in this context words need not be guarded and social barriers are moderately low. An intimate style is one characterized by complete absence of social inhibitions. Talk with family, loved ones, and very close friends, where you tend to reveal your inner self, is usually in an intimate style.
The term style refers to a language variety that is divided based on speech or speaking situation into formal and informal styles. We can speak very formally or very informally, our choice of the styles is governed by circumstances. Ceremonial occasions almost require very formal speech; public lectures are somewhat less formal; casual conversation is quite informal; and conversation between intimates on matters of little importance may be extremely informal and casual. We may try to relate the level of formality chosen toa number of factors: (1) the kind of occasion, (2) the various social, age, and other differences that exist between the participants, (3) the particular task that is involved, e.g., writing or speaking, and (4) the emotional involvement of one or more of the participants (Wardaugh, 2006).
Style relates to the typical ways in which one or more people do a particular thing. Style in language behavior thus becomes alternative ways of expressing the same content. Style is the way speakers speak, the speaker also can make a choice weather informal and formal, it depends on circumstance and the age and social group of participant (Wardhaugh, 2006). And also style is the variant in the speech which is used in certain situation or form of the language used for the same purpose under certain circumstances.
This sociolinguistic tradition of investigating style as an aspect of symbolic speech variation differs from that of anthropological linguistics or ethnography of communication, which primarily focuses on ‘ways of speaking’ – including styles and registers – as expressing particular social functions, events, or relationships (though it also includes careful linguistic description).
An important movement in sociolinguistics in recent years has been the merging of variationist analysis with such an ethnographic conception. In the case of style, a group led by Penny Eckert (the California Style Collective) at Stanford led the way with a paper in 1993. They discard a purely-linguistic definition or identification procedure for style, and instead crucially emphasize the role of social function and practices. This is also linked with a focus on style as collective and dialectic, rather than stressing its individual, intra-speaker and static nature
Style relates to the typical ways in which one or more people do a particular thing, and Registers can simply be described as variations of the language according to its use, while the dialect as a language variation based on users registers on this concept is not limited to the choice of words (such as the notion registers in the traditional theory) but also includes the choice of the use of text structure, and texture.
Slang word
Slang is vocabulary that usually used by people who have the same social group and who know each other well, this is informal language that some people use in speaking rather than writing. Slang normally refers to particular word and meaning, but can conclude longer expression and idiom. Slang is often particular to a brief period of time, with common usage ranging from decades to only a few months. Therefore words which are widely used and understood at one time, do not have the same meanings later. For example, a good thing may have been "swell" in the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s, "groovy" in the 1960s, and "cool" in the 1970s.
Here are kind of slang:
1. Letter homophones
Abbreviation slang is a shortening of a word. On the other hand an acronym is a subset of abbreviations and are formed from the initial components of a word.
Example:
Ø BTW (by the way)
Ø LOL (laugh of loud)
Ø ASAP (as soon as possible)
2. Punctuation, capitalizations and other symbols: These functions are typically used for emphasis or stress. A period or exclamation point can be used repeatedly emphasized.
example: "STOP IT" - It means more stronger than "stop it"
3. Onomatopoeic and/or stylized spellings
Onomatopoeic is the use of words that sound like the thing that they are describing,
Example: “hahahaha” – “laugh”
4. Direct request
These are found in chat engines or online games, where we don't know other's personal information
Example: "A/S/L?" - It means age, sex, location?
5. Flaming
Flaming is the use of ill-mannered insulting language in interactions between Internet users
Example: A debate between users of Windows and Mac OS in progress. Historically, the act of flaming has been described as an intrinsic quality of emails due to an absence of visual and auditory cues in computer-mediated communication (CMC)
Registers
The register is defined as the way a speaker uses language differently in different circumstances. That is, registers are variations of the language used based on fields of use, style, level of formality, and media usage, for example, languages in the fields of sports, social media, television, journalism, radio, and so forth. Therefore registers between one field with another field have different word terms in contrast (Chaer, 1995).
Type of register
1. Frozen or Oratorical: This form is sometimes called the static register because it refers to historic language or communication that is intended to remain unchanged, like a constitution or prayer. Examples: The Bible, the United States Constitution, the Bhagavad Gita, "Romeo and Juliet"
2. Formal: Less rigid but still constrained, the formal register is used in professional, academic, or legal settings where communication is expected to be respectful, uninterrupted, and restrained. Slang is never used, and contractions are rare. Examples: a TED talk, a business presentation, the Encyclopedia Brittanica, "Gray's Anatomy," by Henry Gray.
3. Consultative: People use this register often in conversation when they're speaking with someone who has specialized knowledge or who is offering advice. Slang is sometimes used, people may pause or interrupt one another. Examples: the local TV news broadcast, an annual physical, a service provider like a plumber.
4. Casual: This is the register people use when they're with friends, close acquaintances and coworkers, and family. It's probably the one you think of when you consider how you talk with other people, often in a group setting. Examples: a birthday party, a backyard BBQ.
5. Intimate: Linguists say this register is reserved for special occasions, usually between only two people and often in private. Intimate language may be something as simple as an inside joke between two college friends or a word whispered in a lover's ear.
Jargon
Jargon is the language “which is inaccessible to non-specialists” (Bussmann, 1998). Jargon is used by people belonging to a certain profession; therefore, it is possible to speak about the jargon of programmers, linguists, or educators. Jargonisms (jargon words) can be used by people intentionally in order to show that they are knowledgeable in a certain area.
Examples of jargonisms include “tech” (technician), “PC” (personal computer), “ABD” (all but degree – all other requirements in an educational program have been met).
Pidgin
The word pidgin refers to a language used as a means of communication between people who do not share a common language.
The word pidgin derives from a mispronunciation of the English word business. The term “Pidgin English” was first applied to the commercial lingua franca used in southern China and Melanesia, but now pidgin is a generic term that refers to any simplified language that has derived from two or more parent languages.
A pidgin arises when speakers of two different languages encounter one another and have a need for limited communications. The pidgin incorporates words from both source languages and has a simplified grammatical structure, just enough to allow communication for some limited purpose. For example, a pidgin might support just enough communication to allow Polynesians to trade with Captain Cook. So you could identify trade goods, express interesting trading, identify terms of the trade, but you could not discuss the full range of ideas you could in either native language.
A pidgin is never any person's native language; it evolves among adults who are native speakers of different languages.
Creole
People can develop pidgin dialects into languages in their own right. This typically happens when children begin to favor the pidgin dialect over the parent language. This kind of language is called a creole. A creole is a language that has developed from a mixture of different languages and has become the main language in a particular place. In other words, creole is pidgin in a crack or fairly large space. If in pidgin only organizations then Creole is the merging of several languages, and then raises new languages in society for the next generation.
One example of creole that taught to children as their mother language is Tok Pisin used in Papua New Guine. This language was formed due to the influence of the English and Papuan Language elements as well as several other Austronesian languages. In the city center, children from mixed families learn Tok Pisin as their first language. Therefore, the Pidgin language changed to creole.
Examples of vocabulary from creole Tok Pisin are as follows:
1. Nogut ( no good ) : tidak bagus
2. Sekan ( shake hands ) : berjabat tangan
3. Kilim ( kill him ) : bunuh dia
4. Pisin ( pigeon ) : jenis burung
5. Gras ( grass ) : rumput
In the form of syllable or syntax, Tok Pisin is almost the same as English, for example:
1. Mi kukim rais : I cook rice ( saya memasak nasi )
2. Em I ritim buk : He is reading a book ( dia sedang membaca buku )
Therefore, from the example above, then children who were taught the language of Tok Pisin since childhood, actually they did not know that their language was a mixture of English. Thus, they will have difficulty when meeting the native speaker in English for the first time
References
Akmajian, A. (1998). Linguistics: An Introduction to Languageand Communication. Massachusetts: MTT Press.
Bussmann, H. (1998). Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. London: Routledge.
Chaer, L. A. (1995). Sosiolinguistik Perkenalan Awal. Jakarta: PT Rineka Cipta.
Finegan, E. (2008). Language: Its Structure and Use. Boston: Michael Rosenberg.
Wardaugh, R. (2006). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/types-of-english-formal-informal-etc/standard-and-non-standard-language.
https://www.academia.edu/10026225/dialect_and_standard_language.
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/types-of-english-formal-informal-etc/slang.
https://www.weareteacherfinder.com/blog/difference-lingua-franca-pidgin-creole/
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